Comparing Characters of Ellen Foster and Into the Wild Essay -- Compar

Comparing Characters of Ellen Foster and Into the Wild The raging cold screams against his back at night. Her fathers drunken jeers make her bankrupt as she cowers in the corner of her room. Both have natural families, yet both have been driven to flee from these families. She flees because her life amongst family is terrifying, loveless, and oppressive. He flees because he believes that his family has vainglorious arrogant and materialistic, and is thus oppressive as well. She is the title character of Kaye Gibbons Ellen Foster, and he is Chris McCandless, a real young man portrayed by Jon Krakauer in Into the Wild. In their respective stories, Ellen and Chris both find themselves on their own, each taking a journey farther and farther away from his or her family as each searches for law and personal satisfaction. Neither Chris nor Ellen seems to regret leaving home, but their reasons for fleeing are quite different. Ellen is attempting to escape from her family because she des ires love and a stable setting in which there are people to nurture her, while Chris is trying to avoid just that. Ellens code of ethics places strong value upon family and friends Chriss, however, spurns human companionship because he seems to feel that it pollutes his blood with nature and with the one upon whom the course of his life depends the most that is, himself. Upon first glance at the character of Ellen Foster,... .... He seemed more at home with the harsh elements of nature, which check and taught him like dutiful parents. Even though he died as a result of his journey toward truth and freedom from the fetters of society, Chris was alone with nature, which was his idea of true family. The nurturing bodies that financial aid the growth of Ellen Foster and Chris McCandless are complete opposites. Ellen thrives on human love and acceptance, eating it like the sweetest fruit of the shadiest tree, while Chris bathes in snowstorms and nestles into the elements as if he s leeps in a home-sewn quilt. Each character endures a long journey to attain security, but in the end, they both arrive home, where they are free at last.

The Psychological Effects of Stroke in Older Adults Essay -- Psycholog

The Psychological Effects of Stroke in onetime(a) AdultsElderly people are continuously faced with the drain effectuate of the aging process. Age-related maladys are part of the aging process that put the elderly population at risks for material, mental, and societal incapacity in dealing with their nonchalant functioning. However, more than the external pestiferous consequences of these diseases are the psychological ramifications that they have to older adults that are worth investigating. Cerebrovascular accident or stroke is one of the many another(prenominal) age-related diseases that affect both the physical and psychological functioning of many older adults. To understand the extent of the effects of stroke to older adults, this research paper pull up stakes enumerate various physical, mental, and social aftermaths of this disease. Furthermore, it will utilize the most recent studies to explain the consequences of these aftermaths to older adults cognitive, behavior al, and emotional functioning. Also, this paper will discuss the psychological effects of caregiver burden that a spouse or immediate family member may experience while caring for a stroke victim. To gain a better understanding of stroke, it is overbearing to first get a closer look at the background information and underlying factors that surround this disease. Stroke is a serious and life-threatening disease that mainly affects the biological functioning of the brain. It is precipitated by an occlusion in the vascular system that supports and nourishes the brain cells with oxygen and other brisk minerals (Welch, 2008). With the brain deprived of the indispensable nutrients to maintain its fundamental metabolic processes, it is often times altered irreversibly to the point where it affects the... ... J. (2011). Differential aspects of stroke and congestive nerve failure in lumber of life reduction A case series with three comparison groups. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes , 9, 65.Pohl, P. S., McDowd, J. M., Filion, D., Richards, L. G., Stiers, W., & Kluding, P. (2007). Task switch After Stroke. Physical Therapy, 87(1), 66-73.Rogalski, Y., Altmann, L. J. P., Plummer-DAmato, P., Behrman, A. L., & Marsiske, M. (2010). give-and-take coherence and cognition after stroke A dual task study. Journal of Communication Disorders, 43(3), 212-224.Thompson, H., & Ryan, A. (2009). The impact of stroke consequences on spousal relationships from the perspective of the person with stroke. Journal Of Clinical Nursing, 18(12), 1803-1811. Welch, R. (2008). Considering the psychological effects of stroke. British Journal of Healthcare Assistants, 2(7), 335-346. The Psychological Effects of Stroke in Older Adults Essay -- PsychologThe Psychological Effects of Stroke in Older AdultsElderly people are continuously faced with the debilitating effects of the aging process. Age-related diseases are part of the aging process that put the elderly population at risks for physical, mental, and social incapacity in dealing with their everyday functioning. However, more than the external deleterious consequences of these diseases are the psychological ramifications that they have to older adults that are worth investigating. Cerebrovascular accident or stroke is one of the many age-related diseases that affect both the physical and psychological functioning of many older adults. To understand the extent of the effects of stroke to older adults, this research paper will enumerate various physical, mental, and social aftermaths of this disease. Furthermore, it will utilize the most recent studies to explain the consequences of these aftermaths to older adults cognitive, behavioral, and emotional functioning. Also, this paper will discuss the psychological effects of caregiver burden that a spouse or immediate family member may experience while caring for a stroke victim. To gain a better understanding of stroke, it is imperative to first get a closer look at the background information and underlying factors that surround this disease. Stroke is a serious and life-threatening disease that mainly affects the biological functioning of the brain. It is precipitated by an occlusion in the vascular system that supports and nourishes the brain cells with oxygen and other vital minerals (Welch, 2008). With the brain deprived of the necessary nutrients to maintain its fundamental metabolic processes, it is often times altered irreversibly to the point where it affects the... ... J. (2011). Differential aspects of stroke and congestive heart failure in quality of life reduction A case series with three comparison groups. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 9, 65.Pohl, P. S., McDowd, J. M., Filion, D., Richards, L. G., Stiers, W., & Kluding, P. (2007). Task Switching After Stroke. Physical Therapy, 87(1), 66-73.Rogalski, Y., Altmann, L. J. P., Plummer-DAmato, P., Behrman, A. L., & Marsiske, M. (2010). Discourse coherence and cogni tion after stroke A dual task study. Journal of Communication Disorders, 43(3), 212-224.Thompson, H., & Ryan, A. (2009). The impact of stroke consequences on spousal relationships from the perspective of the person with stroke. Journal Of Clinical Nursing, 18(12), 1803-1811. Welch, R. (2008). Considering the psychological effects of stroke. British Journal of Healthcare Assistants, 2(7), 335-346.

What tree did you fall from? :: essays research papers

What tree did you fall from? Find your birthday, findyour tree and then scroll down... This is really cool and somewhat accurate,also in atmosphere with Celtic astrology. Jan 01 to Jan 11 - Fir direct Jan 12 to Jan 24 - Elm guide Jan 25 to Feb 03 - Cypress Tree Feb 04 to Feb 08 - Poplar Tree Feb 09 to Feb 18 - Cedar Tree Feb 19 to Feb 28 - Pine Tree Mar 01 to Mar 10 - Weeping Willow Tree Mar 11 to Mar 20 - Lime Tree Mar 21 - Oak Tree Mar 22 to Mar 31 - Hazelnut Tree Apr 01 to Apr 10 - Rowan Tree Apr 11 to Apr 20 - Maple Tree Apr 21 to Apr 30 - Walnut Tree May 01 to May 14 - Poplar Tree May 15 to May 24 - Chestnut Tree May 25 to Jun 03 - Ash Tree Jun 04 to Jun 13 - Hornbeam Tree Jun 14 to Jun 23 - Fig Tree Jun 24 - Birch Tree Jun 25 to Jul 04 - Apple Tree Jul 05 to Jul 14 - Fir Tree Jul 15 to Jul 25 - Elm Tree Jul 26 to Aug 04 - Cypress Tree Aug 05 to Aug 13 - Poplar Tree Aug 14 to Aug 23 - Cedar Tree Aug 24 to family line 02 - Pine Tree Sep 03 to Sep 12 - Weeping Willow Tree Sep 13 to Sep 22 - Lime Tree Sep 23 - Olive Tree Sep 24 to Oct 03 - Hazelnut Tree Oct 04 to Oct 13 - Rowan Tree Oct 14 to Oct 23 - Maple Tree Oct 24 to Nov 11 - Walnut Tree Nov 12 to Nov 21 - Chestnut Tree Nov 22 to Dec 01 - Ash Tree Dec 02 to Dec 11 - Hornbeam Tree Dec 12 to Dec 21 - Fig Tree Dec 22 - Beech Tree Dec 23 to Dec 31 - Apple Tree APPLE TREE (Love) - of slight build, lots of charm,appeal, and attraction, pleasant aura, flirtatious, adventurous, sensitive,always in love, wants to love and be loved, faithful and postage stamp partner, verygenerous, scientific talents, lives for today, a carefree philosopher withimagination. ASH TREE (Ambition) - uncommonly attractive, vivacious,impulsive, demanding, does not care for criticism, ambitious, intelligent,talented, likes to play with fate, can be egotistic, very reliable andtrustworthy, faithful and prudent lover, sometimes brains rule over the heart, but

Garden for the Blind :: Architecture Design Essays

garden for the Blind I love the idea of creating a garden for the blind. Blindness is something I keep up given a lot of thought, as I puddle Glaucoma, an eye disease that untreated leads to blindness. Doctors said that had I not been diagnosed, I would have been blind by the age of ten. Luckily, in my case, they did catch it and I am adequate to see. Being so close to losing my stack has made me think very seriously about life as a blind individual and I often try to do cursory things with my eyes closed, such as getting ready for bed and playing the piano, to see how much of an margin I would have to make. The first thing that I notice when I try to do something with my eyes closed, is the immediate need for touch. Although the other three senses, audio, olfactory, and understanding are also important and I project to incorporate them into my garden as well, however, my main taper will be on the sense of touch. To generate with, the area designated for th e garden is fairly steep, therefore it is needed to decide how to set the path through the garden. Our class trip to the Butterfly Rain forest, and world able to go through blindfolded, was a great imaging for ideas on creating this garden, particularly with the need to create an environment that is easy to navigate without sight. Stairs provide perspicuous difficulty for a garden for the blind, therefore, I have decided to use sloping ground, which although more expensive, would be safer and an easier environment to navigate. Also, as an additional benefit, the garden would be wheelchair accessible. To line the garden path, either a born(p) pressed dirt ground, or a highly durable short sod ground could work, two of which are natural options. However, recycled tires, much like the get along of nice running track surfaces, would make an easier to maintain surface, that incorporates recycled materials and gives more of a response to the act of walk of life by adding an e xtra bounce (in addition to being even more wheel chair friendly than the previous two natural options). The main focus of the garden that I think would create an awful environment, unlike anything else existing, would be the incorporation of marble statues periodically along the path that visitors to the garden would be further to touch.Garden for the Blind Architecture Design EssaysGarden for the Blind I love the idea of creating a garden for the blind. Blindness is something I have given a lot of thought, as I have Glaucoma, an eye disease that untreated leads to blindness. Doctors said that had I not been diagnosed, I would have been blind by the age of ten. Luckily, in my case, they did catch it and I am able to see. Being so close to losing my sight has made me think very seriously about life as a blind person and I often try to do everyday things with my eyes closed, such as getting ready for bed and playing the piano, to see how much of an adjustment I woul d have to make. The first thing that I notice when I try to do something with my eyes closed, is the immediate need for touch. Although the other three senses, audio, olfactory, and taste are also important and I plan to incorporate them into my garden as well, however, my main focus will be on the sense of touch. To begin with, the area designated for the garden is fairly steep, therefore it is necessary to decide how to set the path through the garden. Our class trip to the Butterfly Rain forest, and being able to go through blindfolded, was a great resource for ideas on creating this garden, particularly with the need to create an environment that is easy to navigate without sight. Stairs provide obvious difficulty for a garden for the blind, therefore, I have decided to use sloping ground, which although more expensive, would be safer and an easier environment to navigate. Also, as an additional benefit, the garden would be wheelchair accessible. To line the garden p ath, either a natural pressed dirt ground, or a highly durable short sod ground could work, both of which are natural options. However, recycled tires, much like the surface of nice running track surfaces, would make an easier to maintain surface, that incorporates recycled materials and gives more of a response to the act of walking by adding an extra bounce (in addition to being even more wheel chair friendly than the previous two natural options). The main focus of the garden that I think would create an extraordinary environment, unlike anything else existing, would be the incorporation of marble statues periodically along the path that visitors to the garden would be encouraged to touch.

Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori means it is a sweet and glorious E

Dulce et decorum est professional person patria mori means it is a sweet and glorious thing to die for your country. It is a meter written by an officerConnotationsDulce et decorum est Pro patria mori means it is a sweet and gloriousthing to die for your country. It is a poem written by an officer inthe army in the world contend one. The poem contains four stanzas whichall vary in their lengths.The first stanza is a verbal description of a group of young soldiersretreating from the frontline. The lines are long which show how slowthey are walking. The stanza focuses on the physical and psychologicalaspects of what it must be like to be in a war. The words that are apply emphasise on this, haunting flares and also a sinister feeling.On the first line a simile is utilize as the poet refers to the young mento be like old men. He also emasculates the men on the second lineby calling them hags which is a noun that compares them to old agedwomen who are in a very bad state. On the third line the adjectivehaunting is used which adds a supernatural feeling to the poem.Following there is the word flares which is ambiguous is it couldsymbolise an attack or it could mean flares as in the flames of fire.The word backs is used also on that line as the soldiers maybetrying to get away from the bad that was happening behind them ormaybe it was a war that was spreading as quick as a fire that is whythe word flares is used. The men marched asleep on the fifth line asthey were wear out and this exhaustion seemed to be trudging aroundwith them while theyre in battle. Also on the same line, it saysmany had lost their boots, I think boots are a symbol of a man, thisalso could mean the men were emasculated an... ...eaks directly to thereader, showing they are both the same and they are both to blame.Children is used on the next line as it shows they are still young,innocent, vulnerable and need protecting. On line 27 the word Lie isused, the uppercase letter reinforces that the cunning is not just a lieit is a large one. The words that come next in Italics is the actualtitle of the poem Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori, these wordsare written in Italics to they stand out. They also conclude the ironyof the poem, as irony has built up to this point during the poem byusing horrific images and language. The last stanza is one which iscontemplative and reflective.The poem has a universal message as it can be related to situationsall all over the world. The situations could be in the past, present orthe future however the moral will always stay the same.

Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori means it is a sweet and glorious E

Dulce et decorum est professional person patria mori means it is a sweet and glorious thing to die for your country. It is a rime written by an officerConnotationsDulce et decorum est Pro patria mori means it is a sweet and gloriousthing to die for your country. It is a poem written by an officer inthe army in the world struggle one. The poem contains four stanzas whichall vary in their lengths.The first stanza is a description of a group of young soldiersretreating from the frontline. The lines are long which show how slowthey are walking. The stanza focuses on the physical and psychologicalaspects of what it must be like to be in a war. The words that are apply emphasise on this, haunting flares and also a sinister feeling.On the first line a simile is apply as the poet refers to the young mento be like old men. He also emasculates the men on the second lineby calling them hags which is a noun that compares them to old agedwomen who are in a very bad state. On the third line th e adjectivehaunting is used which adds a supernatural feeling to the poem.Following there is the word flares which is ambiguous is it couldsymbolise an attack or it could mean flares as in the flames of fire.The word backs is used also on that line as the soldiers maybetrying to get away from the bad that was happening behind them ormaybe it was a war that was spreading as quick as a fire that is whythe word flares is used. The men marched asleep on the fifth line asthey were exhausted and this exhaustion seemed to be trudging aroundwith them while theyre in battle. Also on the same line, it saysmany had lost their boots, I think boots are a symbol of a man, thisalso could mean the men were emasculated an... ...eaks directly to thereader, showing they are both the same and they are both to blame.Children is used on the next line as it shows they are still young,innocent, vulnerable and need protecting. On line 27 the word Lie isused, the uppercase letter reinforces that the fraud is not just a lieit is a large one. The words that come next in Italics is the actualtitle of the poem Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori, these wordsare written in Italics to they stand out. They also conclude the ironyof the poem, as irony has built up to this point during the poem byusing horrific images and language. The last stanza is one which iscontemplative and reflective.The poem has a universal message as it can be related to situationsall over the world. The situations could be in the past, present orthe future however the moral will always stay the same.

Brain Hiccup (Ocd)

Brain Hiccup Obsessive- despotic disorder (OCD) is a type of dread disorder that is characterized by obsessive thoughts and dictated behavior. OCD is an illness that in truth makes an impact in the drop deads of the muckle. This disorder traps its victims in endless cycles of repetitive thoughts and behaviors. This debilitating disorder called OCD exhibit obsessive thoughts linked to irresponsible behaviors and causes symptoms that atomic number 18 difficult to treat, but medications and cognitive behavioral therapy helps take care the outbursts, enabling OCD people to live a fairly normal but challenging life.According to Dr Robinson, OCD is like a needle getting stuck on an old record. Basically he is portraying how OCD works in the brain and causes people to get stuck on a received idea or root on. By this happening it causes the effects of creation trapped in an endless cycle. This cycle is caused from recurring and distressing thoughts, business organizations, or ima ges that the person is stuck on and cant control. This makes it impossible to control, which becomes an coercion, and causes anxiety from not having control of the obsession. This leads OCD victims to an urgent need to perform certain rituals or routines that called compulsion.The whole purpose of a compulsive ritual or routine is an attempt to prevent or make the obsessive thoughts go away. This anxiety disorder is a mental illness that really affects and makes those who afford it suffer. coercion is one of the components that an OCD person will experience by having this disorder. The obsessions are involuntary uncontrollable thoughts, impulses, or images that occur over and over once again in their mind. In the beginning they dont understand the obsession and why its happening. Over time, they will experience it more and more, which causes them to associate it with a fear and disabling anxiety.They can be may obsess about not shaking hands or touching public accessknobs becau se of fear of contaminated. Those who fear hurting others will obsess about their actions and the consequences of them hurting someone. Those who fear that things need to line up or be perfect are obsessed piece of furniture arrangement, eating habits, or cloth. This obsession causes the most anxiety for OCD people. Another obsession is inappropriate sexual thoughts, pornographic images, violent emotions, and violent thoughts. The most common obsession in OCD is hoarding, because they fear something bad will happen if they throw away things.Typical examples of things people hoard are useless items, like outdated catalogs or clothing. Obsession can be demonstrated in many ways for OCD suffers, and really impact their daily lives. The second component that is caused from OCD is compulsion. Compulsions are certain acts of behavior that people do to get rid of the anxiety that was caused from the obsession. They do so by performing certain behaviors, which are rules or routines that th ey have made up. OCD people peril compulsive behavior that is derived from the obsession they have.For example, those obsessed with contamination or germs will compulsively wash and clean their hands till their raw. They can be compulsive in making sure towels are all the same brand and arranged correctly. Another compulsive behavior OCD people portray is checking locks on door multiple times, for instance six times before leaving the house. People with counting and organisation obsessions have compulsive behavior in ordering and arranging things to be perfect. These compulsive behaviors can become so time consuming from the routine they need to do in suppressing the anxiety.Which can really impact a persons life, making it hard for them to live a normal daily life even though OCD is a disease that doesnt have a cure for those who have it. But there is interference for this disease and it consists of medications and therapy. Basically both of these things working together in tryi ng to help in minimizing the obsessions and compulsions that OCD victims have a hard time dealing with in daily life. Because after awhile it becomes consuming and to some it takes over there life and this is why treatment is so important in focusing on using both antidepressant and Cognitive behavioral therapy.Both of these treatments give an OCD patient the chance to live a fairly normal life. The first type of treatment is medicine, which consists of antidepressant called a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitor). The type of SSRI medication Celexa, Prozac, Luvox, Paxil, and Zoloft. The fountain why SSRI is the medication used to treat OCD people is they have an imbalanced amount of serotonin in their brain. So by taking SSRI type of medications are very helpful for OCD people with dealing with the main issue of the disorder, anxiety.This medication is designed to treat and maintain that problem of keeping the serotonin level at a correct amount. The According to Dr Robinson, the main reason why SSRI are used in OCD people, because they have less gradient effects than other forms of antidepressants, less withdrawal symptoms, less danger in the event of an overdose and overall are considered safer that other types of drugs. The Second type of treatment is Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). CBT is a multiple of different therapy types, but the most important for OCD is Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP).This has been shown to be very effective in psychotherapy for this disorder. The reason why it is so effective is because of the technique used in this therapy that really helps OCD people. The reason why this therapy works for OCD is by person being exposed multiple times to a situation to trigger the obsessive thoughts. By doing this helps and trains them in being able to tolerate the anxiety and resist the urge of performing the compulsion. This is very helpful because people with OCD have probably confronted t heir obsessions or obsessions.By them trying to confront it and stop themselves performing they compulsive behavior it actually natural covering fires and makes their anxiety go way up. The only effective way is seeking help and being committed to trying to stop this disorder taking over. This anxiety disorder is such a devastating and burden disease for those who are suffering from it. They really face a very difficult and struggling disease. Even though its an anxiety disorder, but its a disorder that has control over them, having involuntary thoughts, which causes them to have compulsive behaviors. The only way to control it is through treatment because there is no cure for it.

Group Counseling †Article Review Essay

Unlike the first article, this second article talks around group counseling in elementary school focusing on eliminating aggressive behaviors. The purpose of group counseling in this situation is to lessen pugnacity by influencing the feelings, emotions, judgments, and behaviors of the students in the process. Group counseling is perceived to be significant for the purpose of lessening aggressive behavior because elementary student, in their respective ages, are highly dependent on groups or group structures.Children relate with each other making it much easier to break into the group structure and influence thoughts, feelings, or behavior that would consequently influence else within the group. Eight sessions were held to implement the concepts of group counseling and intervention. At the end of the sessions, the children were required to attend a follow-up conflux four weeks after. The result of the study revealed that learning took place and the children displayed desirable ch anges in their behavior.What I like most about the article is that it was based on an real study conducted on elementary students, and that the purpose of the study is to change specific behaviors within the subjects. The objective of the exploreer to approach the problem proactively yielded great results as the sessions bring on revealed that the aggressive behavior of the children were transformed during the group counseling sessions.The article would be a great source of valid and reliable information that could be apply to future situations that requires behavioral intervention. Moreover, the process is solution-based, such that the study focused on a particular problem which is common in the elementary school setting, and conducted research and data gathering which led to a specific resolution that schools would be able to adapt of implement within their school and guidance and counseling system. some other characteristic that is likeable in the article is that it opens opp ortunities for further studies and other related studies, such as the adaptation of the steps carried out in the study however, differing in the problem, etc. The success of the study would urge other schools and guidance and counseling professionals to conduct other studies that would resolve other issues as well. References Stewart, J. (1996). Group Counseling simple(a) School Children Who Use Aggressive Behaviors. Guidance & Counseling, 11, 12-15). Retrieved November 12, 2008 from Academic Search Complete via EBSCOHost.

A.V Lundstedt- Scandinavian Realist

Brief Historical Background of A V Lundstedt Lundstedt (1882-1955) was a Swedish jurist and a proponent of Norse Legal Realism. He was also a professor of Law at the University of Uppsala in Sweden, from 1914 to 1952. Similarly to Haegerstrom, Ross and Olivercrona, he resisted the exposition of rights as metaphysical entities- contending that realistic judicial analysis should dispense with much(prenominal) ideology. Beyond being a prominent tort truth scholar, Lundstedt was also a social democratic member of the Swedish Parliament from 1929 to 1948.The body of his work can be visualiseed as an attempt to revolutionise the field of jurisprudence by transforming the law into a catalyst for political and social reform. Legal Knowledge and Legal Science Lundstedt is regarded by some as the most extreme and buoyant of the Norse realists. Lundstedt advocated that legal science should be conceived of as a real science, and to that end he rejected traditional legal science. His main o bjection to traditional legal science was that it employed metaphysical concepts inter alia, right, obligation, wrong doing and guilt.The focal point of his theoretical work was his sustained attacks towards what he termed the mode of justice. The rule of justice is the resign of phrase utilise by Lundstedt to de none traditional legal science, (derived from the traditional method of natural law), which holds that human beings are persons endowed with legal rights and duties. He was of the view that the term right and other metaphysical concepts employed by traditional legal science, were all illusory concepts that they were naught else but an intellectual play with expressions of whole step as if something real were designated thereby.Such concepts could not be used because they did not refer to any natural facts therefore the terms were devoid of any conceptual meaning. To cement the sphere of legal knowledge as a bonafide, real science legal science must be an empirica l science, which deals with social facts As a science jurisprudence legal science must be founded on experience, observation of facts and actual connections, and consequently be a natural science. He perceived that terms such(prenominal) as legal order and legal rules are not concepts but merely empty words that ought to be replaced with the term legal machinery.Legal machinery in this vain, is used to denote the psychological factors that determine human behaviour in relation to the use of legal vocabulary. He postulated that legal concepts such as right and duty are also bereft of any conceptual meaning and should be abandoned. Therefore, the legal vocabulary of traditional legal science is to be understood as a matter of using words and noises to cause the appropriate behaviour these words and noises are not concepts which could be said to be the reasons for human conduct.However Lundstedt conceded in his writings that, there are some realities that correspond to the concept of rights- namely, a position of advantage and safety, which is a result of the regular enforcement of certain legal rules and the psychological effects this had on the minds of people. In short, because the courts come to ones aid when a person alleges an infringement of a right, a layman is left hand with the psychological impression that his/her right is real because the courts have sought to address the wrong they were done.As discussed earlier, the term right does not designate anything observable, tangible nor anything capable of sensational perception. One cannot show you their right- and thus Lundstedt argued that a right is a fictitious entity. It must be borne in mind that Lundstedts line of reasoning is not what is understood by the term rights when referenced in legal science nor in the public mind, and therefore he argued that it would be better still, to do remote with the concept altogether.This stringent scientific attitude of Lundstedts , was committed to replacing the magical/metaphysical terms associated with traditional legal science scholarship, with scientific concepts having a basis in reality. In Lundstedts view, the scientific concepts were essentially empirical laws, stating the causal relations between the legal words and their effects upon human behaviour. The system of Social Welfare Lundstedt was of the view that there was no objective means to define the requirements of justice, and that invocations of justice cloaked purely subjective preferences i. e. he divergences of opinion concerning whether the wipeout penalty is just. Alternatively he argued that such invocations of justice were representations of unacceptable metaphysical claims i. e. in ancient Rome it was believed that the Emperor was the chosen emissary of God. For this reason, Lundstedt endeavoured to replace the method of justice with the method of social welfare, in solving legal problems. The method of social welfare is premised on social aims- that the aim of all legal activities such as judicial decision making, and the promulgation of legislation should be geared toward benefiting mankind.He emphasised that his notion of social welfare was not a moral or philosophical principle, but that the term should be understood in a descriptive sense representing the actual valuations of people in society. He ardently denied that his method of social welfare was in anyway way related to the ethical theories of Jeremy Bentham or John Stuart Mill, as his theory was criticised as just another adaptation of utilitarianism. For example, Lundstedt stated the purpose of punishment is not for revenge, but to maintain a system that is for the benefit of all i. . a system in which a footpad is held liable for his damages. Were the purpose of the law to be justice, he opined that it could be argued that theft should be condoned if the thief is considerably worse off than the person(s) from whom he stole. (An fable of why he rejected the concept of justi ce) Lundstedt argued that the method of social welfare is a scientific approach, as it is premised upon the reality of human needs and wants and that the aforenamed are facts to be known by science.Lundstedt believed that his method should inform and shape legislation as it was centred on the objective study of social conditions, and on the practical effects and capabilities of the law in improving society for all its members. In furthering his views that the law should be used as a vehicle for social reform, Lundstedt used this method as a line of argument against a proposed prohibition law in the 1920s. He was of the view that such a ban would harm the public regard as for the law.In the 1930s he once again used his method to advocate for the decriminalization of homosexuality, which was quite a radical stance to take, taking into account the measure in which he lived. Lundstedts arguments have been criticised as being not altogether convincing, as he failed to prove that people generally and truly back up the values he advocated. Moreover, he did not provide a measure for those situations in which the valuations of people differed greatly. 1 .J Bjarup, The Philosophy of Norse Legal Realism (2005) 2 . J-O Sundell, Vilhelm Lundstedt- A Biographical Sketch , (2010) 3 . Supra 4 . J Strang, Two Generations of Scandinavian Legal Realists,(2009) 5 . T Spaak, Naturalism in Scandinavian and American Realism Similarities and Differences, 6 . Supra 7 . J Bjarup, The Philosophy of Scandinavian Legal Realism (2005) 8 . M Freeman & P Mindus, The legacy of John Austins Jurisprudence 9 . A. V. Lundstedt, Legal Thinking Revised, (1956) 10 . M Freeman & P Mindus, The Legacy of John Austins Jurisprudence, 11 . Supra 12 . M Freeman & P Mindus, The Legacy of John Austins Jurisprudence 13 . J Strang, Two Generations of Scandinavian Realists,(2009) 14 . Supra 15 . J Bjarup, The Philosophy of Scandinavian Legal Realism, (2005) 16 . Supra 17 . Some believe tha t it is the retribution of society that justifies the expiry penalty, whilst others aver that it is not for mortals to deprive the killer of life.Whichever side of the coin you fall, your perception as to what is just and moreover whether the death penalty is or is not an shabbiness depends heavily upon your feelings and values concerning human life. 18 . J Bjarup, The Philosophy of Scandinavian Legal Realism, (2005) 19 . Supra 20 . J Strang, Two Generations of Scandinavian Realists,(2009) 21 . Supra 22 . J-O Sundell, Vilhelm Lundstedt- A Biographical Sketch , (2010) 23 . J Bjarup, The Philosophy of Scandinavian Legal Realism, (2005)

A Child’s Voice as Reflected in Victorian and Romantic Poems Essay

Child task is one of the most sensitive and controversial issues today, as it is association with child maltreatment. Nowadays, children are entitled to several rights and privileges want the rest of a countrys population, which secure and protect them from all(prenominal) the possible debases and maltreatments that they may experience. Today, peoples resentment and disagreement towards child abuse and child labor idler be observed in campaigns, advocacies, television programs, and other kinds of promotional advertisements.Yet, considering this, one may ask, did this societal issue exist during the knightly times, or is it a relatively young societal dilemma? If this issue indeed existed during the earlier times, how did people react to this and what did they do in order to iron this issue? In trying to address these questions, it may be very helpful to understand find out the answers within the messages of the early Victorian and romanticist poets who talked about issues like child labor during their time.The best examples of these Victorian and Romantic verse forms which reflect messages about child labor and abuse would be Elizabeth Barrett Brownings The Cry of Children and William Blakes The lamp chimney Sweeper. The Cry of the Children by Elizabeth Barrett Browning Elizabeth Barrett Browning is a Victorian poet who has been once known for her very emotional and moving poem entitled, The Cry of the Children.The Cry of the Children expresses the poets resentment and bitterness towards the fact that there were children of her time who were exposed to such very grueling and physically challenging tasks and jobs that can only be done efficiently by adults. The most predominant idea which covers Brownings poem is the weeping of the distressed and miserable children. She describes in detail how painful, dark, and negative these childrens view of life has become because of the sufferings and pains they experience as they complete each days work.She also r eveals the insensitiveness and cruelty of tyrants who never cared about these childrens rights and privileges, as reflected in these lines Our blood splashes upward, O our tyrants / And your purple shews your path / But the childs sob curseth deeper in the silence / Than the strong man in his wrath (157-160). She expresses her hatred towards seeing these children weep out of exasperation and hopelessness in life. comparability Brownings work with that of Blake, her words appear to be more compassionate towards the feelings of abused children.Her words also sound like she is attempting to debunk everything which tolerates and allows the forceful child labor acts which put the children of the society in such a very demoralized and downgraded situation. This is also one factor which makes her work more heartrending and emotionally-moving compared to Blakes work. The Chimney Sweeper by William Blake The Chimney Sweeper by the Romantic poet William Blake primarily talks about the life of children who are required by their life and stinting status to work as chimney sweepers.In a short and very simply-written prose, Blake reveals the feelings and perceptions of children towards an activity which adults consider as work but which they regard as their life. Comparing Blakes work with that of Brownings, it can be said that his poem appears to be a mere theatrical performance and reflection of the realities of these childrens lives as juvenile workers. He presents how such children consider hard-work and perseverance as the essential values they must possess in order to live. This idea can clearly be observed in these lines And so Tom awoke and we rose in the dark / And got with our bags & our brushes to work./ Tho the morning was cold, Tom was happy and warm / So if all do their duty they need not fear harm (20-24). In a lot of ways, Blakes poem does not reveal and expound more than on the emotional pains and sufferings the children felt as much as how Brownings p oem does. Blakes The Chimney Sweepers provides the impression that it only depicts what chimney sweepers do and how they feel about working hard, unlike Brownings explicit emphasis on the maltreatment and abuse aspect of child labor. Comparing Victorian and Romantic Poems Sympathy on Child Labor CauseAlthough Browning represents the Victorian genre of literature and Blake, on the other hand, the Romantic field, the aggregate of both genres cannot be judged and evaluated by looking at the works of these two poets alone. However, if the works of Browning and Blake would be used as the basis of comparison, it can be said that the Victorian genre of literature, as represented by Browning, appears to express more sympathy towards children in the issue of child labor as compared to the Romantics, as portrayed in Blakes poetry.Also, based on the strength and dynamics of the words used, it can be observed that Brownings stanzas are undeniably more sympathetic and compassionate towards chil dren. Her poem also shows more concern and empathy to what children experience and go through everyday which they do not actually deserve. However, although Blakes poem does not appear to be as much sympathetic and compassionate towards working children, it at least provides a good picture and representation of the kind of life that working children of his time led.Works CitedBlake, William. The Chimney Sweeper. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Vol. 2. 8th Ed. Eds. Meyer Howard Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt. Pennsylvania W. W. Norton and Co. , Inc. , 2005. 85 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett. The Cry of the Children. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Vol. 2. 8th Ed. Eds. Meyer Howard Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt. Pennsylvania W. W. Norton and Co. , Inc. , 2005. 1079.

Julius Caesar – Conflicting Perspectives

Every text is constructed for a shoot for the composer is trying to convey and embed their schedule into the reader by persuading them to accept their horizon on key events, personalities and/or situations. Through the manipulation of various textual forms, structures and language composers persuade their audience to produce their location. Composers often decide to present conflicting perspectives to truly engage their audience.By demonstrating the concept of conflicting perspectives the composer is able to glorify their perspective in contrast to another to levy their agenda, they position the audience by language to side with them. The tight narrative Julius Caesar by William Shakespeares utilises the final days of Caesars rule and assassination as the catalyst for exploring the genius of semipolitical power, conveying conflicting perspectives on imperial and republican rule.Shakespeares context shaped the meaning of this trifle as he exploits peoples fears at the time t o connect with the audience. In contrast, Miranda Devines political article Felled by an Invidious Green Plot 19/8/10 (SMH) tells the chilling story about how green activists determinationd political maneuvers to build the support of the public to tear down the timber troupe Gunns and emaciate the life of Chief Executive potty Gay and the Tasmanian economy.She uses various textual techniques and includes a provocative cartoon at the top, as well as quotes from those supporting her views to convince the reader of her perspective. Devine, known for her conservative view on political and social issues, is deliberately bias against the leafy vegetable as she has gained vas wealth through exploiting the countries natural resources such as deforestation. By demonstrating the concept of conflicting perspectives both composers are able to shape meaning to convey their purpose through the choice of textual forms, structures and language.The concept of conflicting perspectives presents th e audience choice and involves them in the depiction of the center of the text and the composers agenda. In Shakespeares renowned play Julius Caesar the concept of political power in ancient Rome, and how political tactics are often used to manipulate the public is explored. The concept of conflicting perspectives is created in the play by the characterisation of Brutus and Marc Antony. Their perspective of Caesar and whether he should rule directly clash, one rguing the side of imperial rule and the other republican rule and so provide the central conflict throughout the play. At the time the play was composed, this concept was a real threat as the Roman Empire sought-after(a) new rule following the recent death of the Queen, allowing Shakespeare to toy with the emotions of his audience. With an engaged audience and the manipulation of structures, language and textual forms Shakespeare is able to shape the meaning of the play.The social organization of their speeches after Caesa rs death, arguing both personal and public reasons for their views, demonstrates their individual perspective and their attempts to convince their audience of their view. Brutus, having to show the reason of our Caesars death, argues from a political perspective, believing imperial rule is the best model. His opening lines Romans, Countrymen, and Lovers, hear me for my cause uses inclusive language to immediately build rapport.He agrees that Caesar was an honourable man Brutus love to Caesar was no less than his, yet his perspective and justification for assassinating him, is ultimately determined by his love for Rome, demonstrated through use of syntactical balance Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more, and is demonstrated through use of rhetorical questions Had you rather Caesar were living and die all slaves, than that Caesar were dead, to pass all free men? which invites the audience to side with his opinion.Through Shakespeares use of patriotism in Brutus p olitical speech, he is able to persuade not and the Plebeians but also the audience, demonstrating how language techniques are able to reinforce a particular perspective to shape meaning in a text. Putting Brutuss speech first is a structural technique by Shakespeare to allow for rebuttal. Conflicting perspectives through the manipulation of language, textual forms and structure allows the composer to present two perspectives and blow over the audience choice in their depiction of the message of the play.The choice is ultimately determined by the context of the reader, which largely affects their interpretation of the text as they whitethorn have diverse experiences causing their depiction of the text to be altered. Marc Antony provides the conflict to Brutus speech, demonstrated through his passionate and melodramatic funeral oration, which provides a conflicting perspective on Caesar and the nature of his assassination. Antony walks on stage holdingCaesars dead body, a dramatic device used by Shakespeare to heighten the effect of the speech. He scolds Brutus and the other senators, mocking, through use of sarcasm and repetition of their honour For Brutus is an honourable man. Antonys key tools at the beginning of his speech are his conspicuous ambiguity regarding Caesar and Brutus Yet Brutus says he was determined, and use of rhetorical questions Did this in Caesar seem ambitious? He challenges Brutus perspective that Caesar was too ambitious I thrice presented him a kingly crown, which he did thrice refuse, expressing his perspective that Caesar was unjustly assassinated, and through his emotive language it was a grievous fault, is able to convince the plebeians that Caesar was an honourable leader Methinks there is oft reason in his sayings. The deliberate structure of the play with, with Brutus speech being first, slightly glorifies imperial rule and reserves the audience the impression that Shakespeare believes that imperialism is the best political model.The reception of the crowd to both speeches indicates how political power can shift opinions of people through the power of language. Firstly Brutus has full support of the crowd let him be Caesar, but Antonys speech convinces them of a different perspective Well burn the house of Brutus. Hence, through the use of juxtaposed dramatic speeches and language techniques, Shakespeare shapes the meaning of the play, harming the audience, involving them in the process of deciding whether republicanism or imperialism is the ultimate model for the Roman Empire.The concept of conflicting perspectives can be a great tool to give the reader choice in the depiction of the text, however, this concept can also be utilised as a way to glorify one perspective in contrast to another. In the news article Felled by an Invidious Green Plot , Devine is similarly making a controversy about the nature of political power, however, through use of an emotive tone, she presents a far more confronting and persuasive argument.Devine effectively manipulates the medium of the article, enabling her to provide a conflicting perspective to the Greens principles as portrayed in the media, while simultaneously not allowing a conflicting perspective to oppose her view. Devines argument is very political and one sided, and this is demonstrated very clearly through emotive language fought a relentless campaign to destroy Gay and rhetorical questions Who is actually press release to believe that environmental management is going to be better in Indonesia or Malaysia? .This, through the concept of conflicting perspectives, forces the reader to undertake her opinion, making the purpose of the article to accept a perspective rather than giving the reader choice. She selects information and statistics to support her view, Hetransformed Gunns into a top 50 company with a market capitalisation of $900 million by 2003 and, similarly to Antony and Brutus speeches, uses emotive language to manipula te the readers to agree with her perspective (John Gay) became a hero of the working naval division people of Tasmania.As she is writing a newspaper article, it could be argued that she should provide a balanced perspective, however through portraying a positive image of John Gay, she offers the perspective that the Greens victimized him for their political gain, and Devine is able to shape her agenda in the text and through conflicting perspectives, purposely glorifying her perspective to embed her message of the article in the reader.Similar to Antony and Brutus, Miranda Devine has a clear political perspective, which is made clear to the reader through her closing paragraph thosepeople planning to vote for the Greens on Saturday had better understand exactly what they are voting formoving backwards into the dark ages.The use of hyperbole to finish an obvious political statement reflects how the article only portrays her perspective, rather than balancing conflicting perspectives , in to convince her readers to undertake her perspective, shaping meaning through deliberate glorification. Through the exploration of textual forms, structures and language both composers, using the concept of conflicting perspectives, shape the meaning of their text.

Death of a Salesman Essay

In 1949 whilst America saw the culmination of anti-communist feelings, fear of the unknown and the general hysteria which stemmed from the snappy War against Russia bleedwright Arthur miller published what was seen to be a personal criticism of the American way of emotional state, his play, Death of A Sales earthly concern. Death of A Salesman tells the report card of Willy Loman, a lowly salesman slowly being estranged from society and progressively led into confusion by his attempts to escape his own failure brought about by the great American Dream he has served so loyally.It was for this play Miller was brought in front of HUAC (house un-American activities committee) and charged with undermining American Values. Miller defended himself by claiming he simply aspired to show the truth as he saw it. It is because Miller insisted on adhering to realism, that he chose a normal, Loman, or literally, low man, to be his Tragic Hero. In doing so, Miller broke one rule- that of Aris totelian tragedy, which demands a noble superstar, of high birth and simultaneously abided by another, the rule of a Modern Domestic Tragedy which requires an mundane persons story to be told.Whilst Milton would have deplored this introducing of trivial and vulgar persons into tragedy, Miller dismissed all criticism of his choice of hero, demanding his accusers to recognise it matters not whether the hero falls from a great height or a small one, or as Linda puts it, hes not the finest sheath who forever lived. But hes a human being and a terrible thing is happening to him the importance then, lies in the way and reason for which the character falls.Willy does, however, comply with both the moulds of an Aristotelian tragedy and Modern Domestic Tragedy in that he suffers from a Hamartia which exits in his fall from grace and eventual(prenominal) death. Most critics and audiences identify Willys Hamartia as his Hubris, his over inflated sense of self-worth and pride, which means he refuses help even as he becomes increasingly lost. However, a few critics complain that Willy cannot be a tragic hero, as he does not have one fatal flaw exclusively some which combine to bring Willy down.This idea, as expressed by Thomas Adler, Ruby Cohn and others rests on the existence of other factors in Willys life, Willy is not only proud, but stupid, cursed with the wrong dreams, lacking in vision and most of all weak. It is this weakness which prohibits him from escaping the Jungle of the American Dream, meaning he dies within it a result of it and as a sacrifice to it, hoping that his death go away reveal the diamonds he seeks.Willys actual death in Death of A Salesman is not shown on stage, but rather, it is symbolised by the sound of a carmoving away at full speed then the crashing down of music which in turn morphs into a dead march, not explicitly showing the morbid act, but implying it heavily enough for the audience to be in no doubt of its occurrence. It is ex emplary of a Modern Domestic Tragedy death not to occur in front of the audience. The music in this death scene is poignant, powerful and very(prenominal) implicit to the plot, without it the audience would not know of Willys death.Music runs throughout the play as a catalyst through which Miller makes the subtler, unspoken presences or emotions known. Take for example the champagne flutes melody which serves as both a melancholy theme tune to Willys failings and a musical physique of his estranged Fathers ghost, who made more in a week than a man like Willy could in a lifetime . The flute embodies both these offices in Requiem. First, Willys failings are made clearer than ever as Linda starts to truly mourn her husband and elicit an impossible last arrivederci from him.Second, flute also shows Willys fathers presence because we know it is from his father that Willy got the wrong dreams which drove him to the grave Linda sits by. It is perhaps important to consider the role of ghosts or past figures which appear throughout the play. Ghosts and figures from the past litter tragedy throughout the centuries. Indeed, the oldest surviving complete tragedy, Aeschyluss Persians (472 BC) features the ghost of the dead King Darius travel from the past to cast judgement over his son Xerxes, whom he deems to be failing in his role and pursuing the wrong dreams.This is not unlike the plaguy presence of Willys own father and his brother Ben, both deceased who continue to taunt Willy with dreams he cannot achieve. Willys suicide is at once self-congratulating, take and selfless. He wants to escape the feeling he is temporary by truly leaving something behind, something one can feel with the hand. This something is his diamond of the $20,000 insurance funds, which will make him a hero for Biff to worship and helping Biff to start up a business of his own.Requiem holds no make outs as to whether the reward was paid and through this and the melancholy despair that r uns through the utmost scene, Miller shows how pointless Willys death truly was. No matter how such(prenominal) money he leaves behind, it will never compensate for the loss the family has to endure. Linda cannot even understand his motives and Happy encapsulates the mood when he declares There was no necessity for it. A melancholy drag of irony is Biff making it clear he is moving away. Thus, he would never have used the money anyway.This shows the true uselessness of Willys death and also his fathers lack of understanding of his own son, who from the start is happiest in the open playing around with horses. However a sadder twist is Happys utter unwillingness to learn from his fathers mistakes, and despite declaring Willy Loman did not die in vain he goes on to show the opposite, promising to win it for him Willy. The Requiem shows Willys final delusion shattered. There is a simple answer to Lindas piteous, why did nobody come? The answer is that Willy was not, contrary to wh at he claims time and time again, known, because he has not changed with the times, and the old values he clings to do not make a man known or a success at all. Evidence of Willys failure to change with time can be traced back to, as Richard T. Brucher puts it, Willys unexpected, marvellingly innocent question How can they whip cheese? Such a simple statement exemplifies his static approach to modern life he wants everything to make to the great days and is unwilling to change anything, least of all his expectations and aspirations.Irony is another key feature of a Modern Domestic Tragedy and Lindas last lines, her mantra of reassurance, Were Free Were free is more heavily laden with irony than any other line of the play. The lines are applicable in so many different ways, not only the upfront meaning of the family being free from debt. They also despondently relay Millers meat that if you live following the American Dream and have consumerism as your only moral compass and relig ion, then the only way to free yourself is to die.A much more cynical view of Lindas words, as proposed by D. L. Hoeveler, suggests they epitomise the familys darker subconscious thoughts, that now Willy is gone, they no longer have to continue on the paths they were forced down. They are free of the burden Willy placed on them. However, the earlier events show that despite no longer being pushed down the path of the American Dream, Happy will continue to pursue it, so this interpretation too is heavily ironic.As for Linda, being free from the burden of Willy is certainly not what she would worry for, after all she more than loves him and even his little cruelties do not change this. She needs to look after Willy so that she has a purpose and an aim. The play ends as it began, bringing the action back to the beginning and lending a continuous rhythm to the play, with Lindas anxious disconcerted calling to the deceased Willy, mimicking her fright in the opening scene when Willy ent ers.It is the flute which opens and closes the play. Everything reverting back to the way the play started shows how insignificant Willys death really is. Capitalism does not crumble, life goes on. It is here that I believe Modern Domestic Tragedies are flawed, where Shakespearian ones are not. When Macbeth dies, the audience is certain that his Kingdom will mourn his loss, however garble he was, he was still their King. There will be a massive funeral, of the sorts Willy dreams of, and a Kingdom-wide expression of collective grief.It is this grief that I believe provides the purging of emotion for the audience, they know his death will continue to be felt after they leave the theatre and this assurance brings closure. This closure however, does not exist in Modern Domestic Tragedies. Willys death will go unnoticed by most, and this does not bring significant catharsis to the audience. There is no final completion of raw emotion. To support my view I can only offer the words of Sh akespeare himself, The poor beetle on which we tread In collective sufferance feels a pang as great As when a Giant dies.

Decision of Allowing the Procurement of Used Items Essay

Discussing the pros on the last of allowing the procurement of utilize items in globe sector (PPA 2011)* It is economical This is because of the liquidity crisis and improvements in product eccentric control hence some governments atomic number 18 opting for secondhand purchases. The current update in this regard is that, fit in to BBC News (Feb2009) the Indonesian military is currently negotiating with the US Army to purchase secondhand F-16 fighter jets in a bid to modernize its air power military capability. Mark you Indonesia is the largest economy in southeastern United States Asia and one of the dynamic emerging markets in the world. The country is also a member of the elite G-20 major(ip) economies. Quality control especially technically aircraft never get old as such because they are meet international standards and principles that govern air transport.* It is affordable to procure at low approach of acquisition, in case of emergencies circumstances to rescue situ ations especially those of public interest, the* government should allow procurement of apply equipment nether exceptional circumstances to serve people, that are evaluated on case by case basis procurement in the need The Bank understands that the decision between the outright purchase and lease arrangements depend on the economic loss and benefits, however, given the potential risk associated with utilize equipment, the government should consider leasing as the favorite(a) alternative only in emergency.* It helps and is the way to go if the government is to fulfill its obligations as far as capital intensive investments are concerned. Purchasing secondhand machines suited Tanzania at the moment because many countries were applying the corresponding strategy on costly machines such as planes, train engines and ships.* Equipment may be available immediately, that upshot to shorten procurement process of acquiring used equipment, compared to the timerequired for the acquisition of new equipment because it involves edict which took sometimes up to delivery period.Discuss the cons on the decision of allowing the procurement of used items in public sector (PPA 2011)* may lead to procure poor quality items that do not meet think purpose that is performance requirements of the goods, and minimum standards for age, correspondence economic life, and quality of materials. That might result in ample economic losses this is refer to the economic life cycle of goods procured. Since they will not be evaluate to originate from Tanzania, it will be difficult to get authenticated record of the time they had been used and suss out at the time of sale.* Failure of getting loans from world Bank at deficit circumstances, this is according to grime Bank Procurement Manual Draft (2001)- Procurement of brand new Goods policy, which explain that it the Banks general Policy is to finance the procurement of new goods only. Borrowers procurement should be to the new.* Proc urement of used goods does not correspond to the principles of value for money, since the experience in the country has shown there were no credible military group to undertake such kind of purchasing with evidence of quality of such used items together with its residual value, relevant to the cost of purchase/money spend on buying.* Creation of a fertile motive for rampant corruption because the government/institutions functionaries might use this loophole to buy junk equipment through underhand methods and so causes great losses to the taxpayers.* Higher running expenses, It is cost fully in case of running expenses such as maintenance and service for used item than for brand new equipment, when government institutions decides to purchase used items, will result to incur a lot of money spending on frequently buying costly spare parts andmaintenance as a result to high total cost of operation hence less productivity.SummaryThe decision of allowing the procurement of used items i n public sector have their respective advantages and disadvantages to the national economy and general social welfare issues as follows. The advantages of procurement of used items are it is economical, It is affordable due to low cost of acquisition, Used equipment may be available immediately, procurement of more items for the same budget, improves transparency and integrity. The disadvantages are Lack of competitive bidding, failure of getting loans from world Bank, May lead to procure poor quality, does not correspond to the principles of value for money, Creation of a fertile ground for rampant corruption, and Higher running expenses.

Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology Essay

Chapter 3 methodology and castChapter 3Research Design and methodological abridgment3.1 AimsThis investigation was concerned beingnesswidely to gather how juvenile technologies come into the normal lives of various large egress, and how in turn these concourse engage with these purposeings the counseling they argon appropriated, including hook onion, cultivation and struggling, hardly as well near some other(a)(a)(a)(a) strategies for non- betrothal, or arms length appropriation. Particular issues accept the bend of knowledge, drop and resource on ICT appropriation inside and betwixt domains of the biography sentence-space, addressing some(prenominal) opportunities for cross e precisewhere and reenforcement of boundaries. More mostly it bring through uped how the appropriation of technologies, such(prenominal)(prenominal) as the PC, the mobile ph one and the Internet is proceeding now that certain practiced elements and skills substantiate odd the domain of the early adopter. The take on started from three motivations1. To theater constantlyyday consumption and condition of engine room in its broad instead than narrow definition, c e veryplaceing the whole of the life space. This sought to oercome the limitations of previous principal that foc dos rather exclusively on the substructure, or maneuver at, or clubs only, and prevalently neglects cross everyplaces, (except when guide comes in to the home in the case of tele-work). It is in like manner sought to explore how the information processing system and some spick-and-span-fangled(prenominal) technologies cross over between domains, and the supposed convergence of television, ready reckoner and telecommunications technologies.2. A somebody centred flack to living with engineering science, rather than an artifact centred approach. With so many crops being genuine, rather than follow the uptake of a unique(predicate) selected engineering, whic h whitethorn fail, or succeed, this physical exercise up pay heeds at what is positively appropriated or engaged with by the respondents in diametrical circumstances during a stop of intense expert reassign. 3. A sociotechnical approach to appropriation, basedon three levels. Rather than being artefact or system centred, the study recognises the socio-cultural nature of innovation in the breeding society. It essays to registerChapter 3 methodological analysis and Designa) The biographies and appropriation of things or artefacts themselves. b) The biography and appropriation and reinvention of proposed uses, programmes and visions that accompany artefacts. oft successions a extra applied science may fail, however it is only a step on the way to adoption and festering of a class of benefits such as home shop, or the mobile office, computers in education. In an age of multiple competing technologies and service providers, the class of service is a nonher key level of an alysis. Reinvention of services and changes in place often occurs ahead of technical innovation, further nevertheless lowlife be seen as incision of the innovation process.c) A third level is that of issues on the macro scale, plainly affect individuals and communities issues such as privacy, reliance on engine room, the effect on the bleaks media, on national identity, the idea of progress through with(predicate) technology etc. This accepts tales of technological utopianism (Kling and S., 1988) and dystopianism, as well as much than concrete issues such as copyright. These may be harder to grasp, but they be central to the idea of the info society, atomic consequence 18 the subject of across-the-board academic business and policy work, and atomic number 18 debates that atomic number 18 access codeible to everyone. They argon overly represented by especial(a) products such as regime legislation, which is in its turn consumed in its own way.3.1.1 Research QuestionsFrom these general aims, a number of specific look into questions and issues emerged and were bring forward keen in the course of developing the seek design. The main questions be summarised below1. What atomic number 18 the crossovers between work and home and other domains of life in the recognize and appropriation of modern ICTs? How does technology help breakdown boundaries, or use to reinforce them?2. What are the issues that falsify adoption and use of ICTs tricky, such at they create ambivalence between benefits and problems, and select practical and companionable resources to cope with them3. How serious is the local kindly ne devilrk as resource and portion in the diffusion of technologies, and the appropriation process? (This question was contingently chaseing since some of the technologies in question are network technologies, and their use depends on having other nation to use them with).4. Why do throng not adopt bran-new ICTs that are be co ming ordinary all nearly them, and what does it mean to be a non-adopter? Can we in like manner look at how the swell unwashed resist technical change?Chapter 3 methodology and DesignThese questions throw light on the commodiouser issue of whether we can question an individualistic expenditure and ownership exercise.Two secondary questions that motivated the enquiry, but are not examined in this thesis in enlarge are1. How are large number experiencing the convergence of technologies, industries etc, and engaging with the indus show driven development of new classes of services and uses. Are thither types of classes of uses veritable by users, or parts of casual life that are not part of the indus chasten and policy agenda. How are, and may throng respond to the key services that are being developed for new technical platforms, and what applications and services appear to be proving most pertinent and popular?2. How do the academic and policy issues well-nigh the inno vation and appropriation of new ICTs form part of the experience of hatful not necessarily engaged with them strikely? How do these issues become apparent and how do community engage with them?In these questions issues of own(prenominal), complaisant, functional and technical context is be central. The Social Shaping of Technology placement enkindles a neighborly constructivist perspective on one fall the way thattechnologies, uses, concepts and roles are constructed in context and in use, but on the other hand straininges the influence of the characteristics of the technology, and in this case information and communications, in shaping the meanings and context. While the meanings of technologies may be shaped by the broader affectionate and cultural context, and discourse, the technology itself has a powerful reverse effect.Most studies of technology and innovations have ensnare the same broad trends in use and adoption of ICTs, with age, gender, money and occupation b eing weighty predictors of situations, use and rate of adoption. Assumptions are do virtually the difference between the way men and women, or the young and the old, approach technology, and are communicate by industry. merely as ICTs become less technological, and digital computing technology becomes more than and more ubiquitous, I wanted to take a criticalChapter 3 Methodology and Designstance, not sounding for stereotypes but trying to see from bottom up observation how and wherefore there may be diverse approaches to new ICT between people, based not only on demographics, but as well as on a range of other influencing factors. Do changes in employment, education and expectations alongside changes in technology challenge our stereotypes of women and men, or the old and the young?In order to tackle this sort of issue I use uped to study a number of varied milieu, with a range of people of various ages, occupations, resources, attitudes to technology etc, in order to stick a range of different examples to compare and line of reasoning. However the number of people I could interview would be limited by my fulfilment and the type of seek method I chose.3.2 Designing the Field WorkThis explore design progress tos on enquiry done into use of technology and media in the home in the various other spaces using a qualitative research method1. This pr each(prenominal)ing of the methodology attempts to present some of the specific tools and experiences utilise to inform the design of the research and the development of an interpretation.3.2.1 studying the Process of Adoption and DomesticationSome studies of technology are aimed at building up a picture of the use of technologies in a social system at a finicky duration in a generally stable situation. new(prenominal)s analyze the process of jejunity from the moment a technology is adopted. The processes leading up to adoption are generally go overd in hindsight. Diffusion studies tend to l ook in hindsight at the diffusion of an innovation though a community, following one particular technology. Adoption studies, all the same those concentrating on word-of-m offh, and individual(prenominal) influence, do not look closely at the tangible process of interactions in details, and seldom use qualitative research methods.In my research I wanted to look at natural setting over a period of time, to try and see what natural showdowns there were with technologies, why and how these occurred, and how people engaged not only with technologies, but with ideas nearly them too. I wanted to see how people linked innovations into their existing cultural and technical world, how different technologies were interpreted, and how they were appropriated. I wantedChapter 3 Methodology and Designto uncover this process and seek to find out in the context of the everyday activities, relationships, background and events of the respondent. In particular, I wanted to see how processes wit hin the social network played a role in the way people encountered and coped with innovations.I developed a method of research, many elements of which I were reinforced by observations from number of police detectives from different disciplines. Rogers (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971) suggests that diffusion research needs to be oftentimes more processoriented than is general. It should be qualitative, and follow sequences of events over time, to try and abbreviate closer to understanding the actually adoption process. He also suggests that instead of charge on single innovations, we should see them as part of clusters, with adoption of one linked to others, especially when boundaries between technologies is not very clear.These clusters or complexes need to be investigated in anevolutionary sequence. He suggests we have to look for how these links are make by potential adopters, and not rely on the classification of experts. In particular, he suggest not falling for the empty vesse l fallacy, assuming that potential adopters do already have the knowledge and skills (indigenous knowledge systems) to evaluate and use innovations relevant to their lives. In fact this is the approach of sociology of technology and of consumption to understand how interpretations of an innovation are arrived at in the culture in which it emerges or is introduced.Developing research out of the consumer research paradigm, Mick and Fournier (Mick and Fournier, 1995) criticise the lack of research that focuses on the on the context of consumption, the pre- and post-adoption aspects of consumption and the role of symbolic. They developed a methodology using phenomenological interviews to give insight into frantic responses, as well as rational explanations given in retrospective interviewing. In particular, they recommend multi-method approaches used in longitudinal inquiries in natural settings (Mick and Fournier, 1998). Moores, who did several details studies of the domestication of radio and satellite TV suggest that future research should look to a range of ICTs, not fair(a) media technologies, and look removed the home as well as inside (Moores, 1996). Some have started to do thisChapter 3 Methodology and Designsort of research, such as Frissen and Punie (1998), who study the role of technologies in the lives of busy people.Haddon, who has conducted much research in this field, makes a number of suggestions about the type of research that needs to be done to understand how people are appropriating the Internet (Haddon and Hartman, 1997).These allow what the phenomenon symbolises to different people, including concerns that may make them wary how they first encounter the Internet, what support they have and any problems they face how it is perceived and maybe used in relation to other technologies and media and where it can possibly fit into the time grammatical constructions of households and individuals. (Haddonand Hartman, 1997).Technologies must not only be put in the context of other technologies and the social context, but in terms of the activities that people do to make them relevant and meaningful.It might be more interesting to go beyond what people actually say about the idea of electronic commerce to consider whether modern purchasing practices might favour consumption via the Internet. For example, if a particular household only buys goods and services from offices and shops and pays in cash, not even using a faith card, thusly arguably they are far removed from electronic commerce over the Internet such a development would be a major new innovation for them. Whereas for someone already tele-shopping by some means, doing so over the Internet is a variation or extension of what is familiar to them. (Haddon and Hartman, 1997).In studying a long term process of adoption, obviously it is important to find out what people actually do in their everyday activities, to understand how particular products, such as home shopp ing services could be relevant, and how their adoption may correspond to existing practices, or represent radical changes in activities. In some ways we are trying to find out what people might need, not in terms of specific solutions, but as an invisible phenomena that can be deduced from the structure of everyday life (Desjeux, Taponier et al., 1997, p.253).3.2.2 Focusing on the Life-Space and TechnologyVenkatesh studied the appropriation of computers in the home and suggests that sociotechnical studies have to attempt to capture the structure and dynamics of computer adoption and use in the home, by looking at the interaction between the social space in which the family behaviour occurs and the technological space in which technologies are embedded and used. (Venkatesh, 1996) This is similar to much of the domestication research that tries to understand the structure of the moral thriftiness in the homeChapter 3 Methodology and Design(Silverstone, Hirsch et al., 1992 Silverstone and Hartman, 1998). This shoots looking at symbolic and practical structures of the home in terms of time, space, activities, roles, power relations, rules, and use of technologies. Studies of the workplace and computerisation take a similar view, looking to understand not only the formal organisation of work, but also the many informal relationships and activities. The aim is to build a model from the bottom up model of how the user provide take off value from the product or service (Carey and Elton, 1996, p.41/42), how they will make sense of in light of all their experiences across the life-space2.The end of this study was to link the various domains of life, to study the moral economy of both home and the work place, but also through relationships and activities that cross boundaries. Into this study of the greater life-space I needed to study how technologies arrive in this space and how they are domesticated. To do this I had to look at all the domains of activity and type s of activity that made up peoples lives, and could be affected by new ICTs. The following figure gives some of the accomplishable domain of a functions of application of technology.Chapter 3 Methodology and DesignChapter 3 Methodology and Design3.2.3 Gaining Access bingle problem is to gain access to respondents, and the problems of being able to study them, and gain some familiarity with their world, or percentage their reality. Social science methodologies propose many different ways in which this can be achieved, and guidance on the extent to which involvement in a respondents life world is necessary to for particular descriptive or analytic ends. Practical problems include getting people to announce to the researcher at all, then getting them to be cave in, co-operative, and sincere in discussing the aspects of their lives that interest the researcher. More entire for research methodology is the reliance on the personal descriptions of the respondents, who may either inte ntionally conceal or mislead the researcher, or unintentionally mislead them. In studyingsomeones life world, it is flimsy that the respondent will be able to comprehensively and thoroughly describe not only their opinions and thoughts, but the details of everyday activities and relationships, and the context in which they conduct them, especially in the space of a relatively short interview. Participant observation is a method that tries to surmount these obstacles, but at the expense of ample effort by the researcher, and can only be carried out in a situation where the researcher can actually live or work within a small base over an extended period of time. Since I intended to look at a number of groups, and across the social network of one particular member, this type of methodology is impossible. What is more, gaining access to the work place or social clubs may be possible, but living in private homes is very difficult.Only a a few(prenominal) researchers have tried this (for example, James Lull in order to examine media use (Lull, 1990)). I wanted to study the way people encountered new technologies over a period of months or even years, when in fact key events may only occur very infrequently, so this did not make much sense. Other research methods used in media studies include asking the participants to keep diaries. This again is does not get any closer if especially if salient events occur very infrequently and right(prenominal) the period of research interaction.I wanted to interview not only users of new technology for whom the technology had a come up to personal relevance, but also non-users for whom it did not. I anticipate that duringChapter 3 Methodology and Designthe process of research many of the respondents would be likely to encounter and form opinions on new ICTs and have some troth with the process of innovation and diffusion, however unwillingly. I had to find a method that would enable me to gain access to people who did not have any interest in the subject of research- new media technologies, and who would be difficult to match or engage with though a research method based on current users. Especially for these people I had to develop a number of tactics to bring out the reciprocation of new ICTs, and to build an understanding of each persons life-world and the way that they encountered and engaged with ICTinnovations.3.3 Initial apprehension of Research MethodInstead of selecting a range of established social groups, say a workplace, a club, a nuclear family, a group of friends, a shopping centre, I decided from the outset to use an Informer approach, taking as my point of entry an individual who would to some extent participate in the research as a co-researcher, and provide entry into their social world. Blumer suggest that the researcher seek participants in the sphere of life who are who are acute observers and who are well informed(Blumer, 1969, p.41).The research design then involved mapping the various other people that these respondents engaged with (both in relation to specific uses of ICTs and more generally) in different domains of their life sphere. I would then conduct interviews with those they work with, their family, their friends, and ask them to report on their experiences of traditional and new media and communication technologies. The Informant, and the others they identified, would not be selected on the basis that they in person use or buy any particular technology given the symmetry principle that non-use is just as interesting as use.The crucial point is that it is the Informants social network and individuals within it that are being studied, not only the key Informants themselves. Whilst the selection of the initial informants would obviously have an important influence over research outcomes, any such shaping by the researcher would then be diffused as the interviews moved out to the networks identified by the Informants. Although such an approach does notChapter 3 Methodology and Designeliminate the bias inherent in selection of respondents this kind of snowballing method does open up the range of people interviewed.The involvement of the Informant was conceived as being important for practical and suppositious reasons as well an informant will have to be engaged as a co-researcher who will provide access for the researcher to their social groups. I did not presume that the Informants mail service wouldbe un-problematic, but anticipated that there would be many difficulties with their relationship to the research, and their role in forming the opinions of their groups.In fact the informant role as a point of passage between social groups is very important however they are unlikely to be unique points of passage in real life. By interviewing a number of people who divided similar experiences and knew each other, or knew a common contact this method would also enable me to compare the experience and interpretations the r espondents had of particular events, divided up spaces, relationships and each other. This would make the study satisfy some of the basic demands of an ethnographic study.The aim was to conduct this study on a longitudinal basis with the idea of repeating the fieldwork after maybe 1 year, by which time I expected that there would be appreciable changes in the discourses and use of technology in society in general and in the groups being studied.Interviews were conducted on a semi-structured basis with the help of a schedule of questions and issues (include in the Appendix). I also explored the use of other devices to prompt responses in a less structured way. Having carried out a dummy run with these research instruments on friends and fellow students, I then undertook an initial pilot study with the first group of interviewees. Since I was attempting an experimental and rather unstructured research design, which potentially threw up further problems, for example in data analysis, the pilot study provided an important opportunity for assessing and refining the research design.Chapter 3 Methodology and Design3.3.1 Designing the interviewsI was not trying to trace the network of influences, but rather study a group of people who interact at home, work and in other social situations, and compare their different approaches and study how they influence each others, and how the influence of third parties is passed on and negotiated in the group. in that location is no need to do a complete network analysis for this, but in pose together the sample, an informants ego (personal) network is to bethe basis for selection.I had to design an interview guide that would investigate the individuals background, their everyday activities, major and minor events in their lives and their relationships with others. This would include information on activities that are currently the target of the development of ICTs, such as workplace activities, shopping, banking, media, enter tainment, communications and information use. I mapped out the range of areas of life that I might have come up in the following Table. I would then focus on the knowledge and use of ICTs and how they were engaging with them. Since I was investigating the adoption process, I also tried to find out how they went about adopting new products, covering information seeking, advice taking, buy, acquire etc, for what ever product. This included the grandeur of different personal relationships in making lasts, purpose out information, and forming opinions, compared with reliance on public sources such as shops and media. I also asked about broader issues to do with the development of technology and its seismic disturbance on society, attitudes towards change, and if they had knowledge of in policy issues involved in the information society.Chapter 3 Methodology and DesignThe interview was flexible enough to range over issues that the respondents brought up. The main topics covered are in the table. emphasise, life themes and historyEducation backgroundFamily backgroundLife historyImportant relationshipsResourcesEveryday activities and new-fangled eventsEventsLife changesWork activitiesDomestic life3Shopping practicesInformation, Media and CommunicationInformation use and attitudeMedia useWork communicationFriends and family communicationICT use and knowledgeICT useICT adoptionSocial webs use of ICTsICT attitudesEngagement with ICTsKnowledge about ICTsProblems with technologyKnowledge of implementation of ICTs ingovernment and industryPolicy issues on ICTsTable 1 Topics covered in interview schedule3.3.2 pristine analysis of success of first pilot interviews, and comments for proceeding with concluding research on pilot.The initial respondents were found through an acquaintance, a primary school teacher who agreed to help. She shout outd a colleague and her family as her side by side(predicate) network, whom she shared most things. The details are given in t he next chapter. The first set of interviews was conducted in January 1997. All eight interviews were transcribed. The interviews explored the life of the participant looking at domestic, social, employment, and economic situation, and some life history. It then looked at a number of everyday activities drawn from the original plan for looking at new media in everyday life. The interviewing approach started not from technology, but from particular activities, and attitudes towards those activities, the social relations involved, and included instances of specific technologies.The oppugn aimed to find out what the important activities, preoccupations and relationships are in the participants lives, and their attitudes and practices around them. Then more particular questions were asked about technology in everyday life, based on the earlier remarks of the participant, and introducing new themes. in that respect was not an attempt to get them to define technology, orChapter 3 Metho dology and Designuse my dimmed definition, but technologies were seen in the context of particular practices, activities and expectations.I was happy with the results of the first interviews. They laid considerable seat for asking about the changes in use and expectations about technologies in context over the last year. However I made changes to the question schedule, mostly as a result of how I actually conducted the interviews, but also to reinforce some of the background material. For example, I needed to bring out more details of the relationships between the participants, and ask their opinions on the others attitudes to information, technologies and the other activities and interests identified in the research plan. I also asked more about significant others that I was not interviewing, who lay outside the social plenty of the principal informant.3.3.3 Finding and engaging respondentsI found the rest of the respondents by focusing on finding principal informants with spec ific backgrounds that I thought would be interesting in the light of particular interpretations of the technology these included computer entrepreneurs, artists, senior business managers, students and unemployed teenagers. I also wanted informants who would be enkindle in the topic and agree to help me persuade their family, colleagues and friends to help me. Through word of mouth and email-lists and a local cybercafe I found three informants who put me in touch with their personal networks. Details of the respondents are given in the next chapter in summary and in the Appendix in much overfull detail.3.3.4 Conduct of the interviewsWhile I only met most of the respondents for the interviews twice, I spent a considerable tot up of time with the Informants. I usually met them once to explain the purpose of the work, and get an idea if they would be enkindle and willing to help, and also if they could provide me with a network to interview. In particular, I met frequently with the informants in Groups 2 and 3, who were developing very interesting multimedia projects. This included spending the night on the floor of one while visiting his home inChapter 3 Methodology and Designa snowstorm in the north of Scotland. I visited them where they worked and in their homes for the first and second interviews, and in the case of groups 1and 3, travelled to visit other members of the group with them.I made the interview the focus of a meeting in which I also tried to develop an understanding about how they lived, where they worked, the relationships with others, their interests and engagement with the subject by observation and in conversations around the interview. These conversations were used to make myself feel at home, and to make the respondent realise that I was not coming to grill them about their knowledge of complex technologies, which worried some of them.The conversations also revealed things about their relationships with others in the network, and sometime s raised issues that would not have come out in the rather more formal interview. approach path to the second round of interviews was easier in some respects, probably due to familiarity of the interviewee with me and the process of the interview, and the more relaxed relationship between me and the interviewee However, while some of the respondents had had many experiences with new technologies over the gap, others had had almost none, and could not see the point of the interview. still it was important for me to find out why they had not, and find out what they knew about the experiences of others in their network.3.3.5 Second pose Empirical Data CollectionThe Second Interviews focused on current attitudes and use of technology, and investigate experiences and changes in activities, personal situation andtechnology awareness since the first interview. It looked for the role of others in these experiences. I attempted to get participants to tell more in-depth stories about their encounters with technologies, and the way these experiences were communicated and shared at the time, and subsequently. I also wanted to try some other interview techniques to enriched the research. This is not quite triangulation but a way to expand and raise the understanding, rather than perform any alternative or cross-checking. For this I included interviewing in groups and using pictures to stool talkChapter 3 Methodology and Design1. To discover what each participant knows about and is ignorant of, in relation to technological developments that have been announced by the supply side of industry and government, particular functions and uses of new media technology, or issues raised by multimedia use. In the first interviews I waited to the very end to ask about awareness of the Internet, Digital TV etc, and offered short explanations if the participant did not know and wanted me to explain. other I did not. I wished to pursue a similar course this time, finding out how awa re of these developments they are today. I used pictures, and scenarios based on their particular life-worlds. This way I hoped to discover the depth of knowledge, and interest in developments in multimedia.This will enhance my understanding of what technologies or ideas the participant comes into contact with. 2. To investigate the vastness of the close social network, and to use it as a reflexive tool to bring out shared experience, and differences in attitudes and knowledge. To do this I interviewed some of the respondents in pairs or group. This was aimed at bringing out stories that did not come up in our individual talks, and to bring up more details about the relationships. It was also an attempt to give me a closer insight into shared experiences around technologies, uses of technology and attitudes including what views are held in common, what has not been shared by the participants, how they rate different sources of information and influence, and their impressions of fut ure developments in new media technology.3. To investigate the interaction between different areas of everyday lifehome, work, social, public, the different relationships with people in these different domains, different communications patterns, and the boundaries created between these areas.4. To investigate changes in multimedia. Originally the research tried to focus on the aspects of everyday life that the supply industry has been predicting would be affected by new technology e.g. shopping, information, communication at home and work, a range of work practices and activities, education and training, banking, entertainment etc. The questions explored these areas, focusing inChapter 3 Methodology and Designadvance on the issues that were arising from the supply side agenda, but allowing the respondent space to lecture about how new technology was coming into their lives, and look for areas where it might do. Over the time of the research, a great many changes have come about in the use of ICTs often in areas quite banal, and with unforeseen applications and technologies. The second interviews tried to uncover those experiences, and applications that have developed that are outside the main areas of hype.The interviews looked for ways that new technology came to be judged or coped with. I specifically looked for engagement and utility dimension of relationship to information, communications, learning or entertainment systems.The exercise showing the photographs was somewhat successful, although with some people they had no idea about any of the issues involved. The photos mean that it was easier to introduce the subjects. Sometimes it felt like going over old ground. Doing the interviews in groups led to some more information being divulged and the discussion that ensured were interesting as they revealed differences in knowledge, and attitude between those in the groups, be they a couple, a family etc.3.4 Analysis of DataI interviewed 29 people in 4 grou ps, with two sets of interviews, with each interview lasting between one and two hours. Computer-aids were used to assist the management and analysis of the mass of interview transcripts. The first job was to try and survival from this material quotes corresponding to all the issues I had raised, and look for new ideas and issues arising directly from the respondents words. The NUDIST package prove extremely helpful with its powerful facilities for cross-referencing excerpts. Crucial to this is the elaboration of a set of reference terms. I developed a rough set of terms in analysing initial interviews from the first group and subsequently refined these in the light of a larger number of responses. The aim was to balance on the one hand an openness to a wide range of responses, and on the other the need to group these experiences. This enabled a coincidental investigation of the data from the bottom up, i.e. from the interviews themselves, and from the top down, engagement based onChapter 3 Methodology and Designthemes derived from existing theory and research questions. The categories generated and classified are listed in the Appendix. They proved very helpful in analysis, building up a picture of important dimensions of the experience of ICTs. However, as we see in the detailed empirical chapters, it was necessary to generate further more detailed schema for analysing particular aspects and processes in ICT adoption (and nonadoption). The use of computer-tools allowed considerable flexibility in this respect. These nodes were then linked further together in a number of emerging themes relevant to the network, technology, technology problems and attitudes, non-adoption, adoption, knowledge, communication and information use. Searches of the marked texts enabled groups of quotes reflecting different issues to be bought together quickly. However there was still a need to structure this in a simpler and more straight forward way in order to actually write t he stories and compare and contrast experiences.3.5 hit (Background, Events, Activities and Network)To structure the resultant data a framework was needed that would focus on particular dimensions of everyday life relevant to understanding the waythat people encounter technologies, think about them, adopt and use them. The approach I chose was to look at the data from four angles Background or personal history, Events, Activities and the social Network or BEAN to make an easily memorable acronym. This gives a way to baste the contextual information, and to highlight crossovers and boundaries in the consumption, use and domestication process. It also gives framework for then pathetic to analysis based on domestication, appropriation, adoption, diffusion, and consumption models.These dimensions are obviously not independent activities are colligate to the network, and changes in activities and relationships. Many events could be argued to be particular types of activities that peo ple take part in.Background or private History The respondents all have a history of experiences, of use and adoption of technologies and services that influence their activities and attitudes during the study. The personal history goes beyond this to broader history of relationships, education, and other activities. This dimension includes reflections on theChapter 3 Methodology and Designlife course of the individual or group. It looks at the possibility of personal innovativeness.Events There are three types of events that influence the adoption and appropriation of innovations life course events, cyclical events, and one off social events or technological experiences. These events may be periods of considerable length (such as particular project at work, or the learning period for a new innovation). Activities these describe the spheres of everyday life in which the respondent takes part, such as work, school, family life, community life, and the activities they engage in withi n those spheres. The use and attitude to information, technologies and communication is examined within the context of these activities. These include work tasks, domestic tasks, leisure activities, media use etc. Activities will reflect, but not be actually linked to the stages of the respondents life course. Changes in activities are linked to events.Network the personal network describes the relationships of the respondent, with whom they share spaces, ideas, decisions, experiences etc. The network is not fixed, but evolves over time.These are now examined in more detail3.5.1 Background/Personal HistoryBackground and personal history approach looks for the attitudes, experiences, knowledge and motivations of the respondentsLife themes,Motivations, values, attitudes that are broadly continuous during our lives, or through long periods. They include certain psychological factors related to innovativeness, enterpreneurialism, self-centredness etc. medical prognosis on life, attitud e towards relationships and community, priorities. At any one time certain themes may be more apparent or easily expressed than at others. They can also develop over time as a result of major events and experiences (e.g. (Douglas and Isherwood, 1979, 1996 Douglas, 1996) and work on lifestyles (Chaney, 1996)). It is not obviously not possible to look at why these exist in detail where the line between genetic, early life shaping, and later life changes is, and how we can change ourselves.Past life projects, Past life eventsChapter 3 Methodology and DesignThe past experiences and events that shape attitudes, knowledge, social network, Knowledge, values, priorities and attitudesThe attitudes and knowledge that are carried forward at each stage of life to the next. Routines, repertoires, habits, beliefsThere is nothing deterministic about the influence of our past on our present, new life projects can draw on this knowledge and experience, but can also be attempts to overcome, change or retreat from aspects of earlier life projects. At the level of technology, media, information and communications there are Experience of using and seeing technology, personal and vicarious Education in ICTInterest in innovation, new products and servicesInterest in information about the worldAttitudes towards technically mediated or synergetic activities. Particular experiences, personal habits and routines, myths and beliefs about ICTs,3.5.2 NetworkThe personal network is those people we have relationships with in our chance(a) life. It ranges from close and intimate relationships of family friends, through colleagues in public life to casual, weak relationships, acquaintances etc. These relationships can be voluntary or obligatory, friendly or hostile, or anywhere in between. Networks associated with life projectse.g. family, work colleagues, friends from other activitiesKnowledge and resources associated with networksThe network brings with it knowledge and resources, obligati ons, division of responsibility and resources).Shared myths of social groups in the networks,History of relationships, shared experiences, knowledge of and about those in the network. Symbols with meaning exclusive or special to the network. Cross over of networks. diverse networks in our lives can be kept separate or overlap. People have different sorts of networks strong, close, exceedingly connected, weak and dispersed, radial an individual is part of several not overlapping networks.Self- apprehension within network,Relates to our own perception of our place within a network our status, value, contribution etc.Chapter 3 Methodology and Design structural and symbolic roles in networksResponsibilities, status, influence, specialisation, demands. This includes what we do in the network, and how we are respected the moral and the economic roles and the stereotypes and images of others in the networks.At the level of ICTs there arePeople in network who use new technologyThose wh o are trusted and accessible for information and advice Those who are considered examples, opinion leadersStatus of technology knowledge and use in a relationshipUse of technology in mediating relationships3.5.3 ActivitiesThese are the things we do they are not always rationally explained by goals, and often emerge from compromises and restrictions, as much as from voluntary choice. Activities include routine everyday activities. They include maintain and developing relationships, motivation and goals, actions, consumption, creation and production, communication, and learning. topical life projectsThe activities that make up and support our life projects i.e. Work status, family status, leisure interests. These life projects are linked closely to life stage. These include all the things we do as part of jobs, studying, maintaining our relationships, managing our home, being a citizen, and aconsumer.ChildhoodAdolescence deviation homeStudent untimely unemployment20sEarly FamilyDelay ed SingleDelayed FamilyMaturity in workOlder childrenMotherhoodChildren leaving homeDivorceSecond FamilyEmpty Nest IIEarly retirementYoung elderlyOld ElderlyTable 2 Possible Life stagesCurrent Goals and motivations(Why, what) These are specific to life projects and to more general life themes, and are the reasons why we undertake (most of) our activities.Chapter 3 Methodology and DesignPriorities and pressuresLimits of time, space, efficiencies sought we prioritise activities according to pressures and restrictions, often trading off between different demands, projects and motivations.InteractionsMany of our activities are related to our interactions with others our network Crossover between life projectsManagement of boundaries we have activities aimed at maintaining boundaries between different areas of life, or trying to bridge them.Knowledge associated with activitiesTacit and explicit knowledge related to activities. Myths associated with the activities and the institutions.Kn owledge needed to perform activitiesAt the level of ICTsActivities using ICTsActivities where ICTs currently in common useActivities where use of ICTs are currently being innovatedCommunication circles and patternsInformation work processing information, finding information EducationActivities were there is pressure for efficiency improvements Time hungry activities3.5.4 EventsEvents are particular sorts of activities that take a short time to achieve and stand out as remarkable against normal activities. They normally involve a change in regular or routine activities and have a significant effect, but can themselves be cyclical or regular as well as unique. annexation and domestication process events are very important as they often mark important stages in personalisation, in ever-changing attitudes, in making rules, learning and in changing relationships. Events picked up on in the interviews were those that occurred in front or during the period of study. Since this wasdone by self reporting, only the events that they found significant to the questions (which were varied) were reported. However the questioning was designed to reveal a range of events.Chapter 3 Methodology and DesignOne class of events I call life events. I group life events into two categories, major, those that have involve upheaval, and minor, things that may not involve much change, but can be the opportunity or cause of change. Of course there is cross-over, and with hindsight a minor event could be the cause of major change (a new friendship that ends in marriage, or a new interest that leads to a career or major leisure activity). study life events are events that involve considerable material, relationship and symbolic upheaval.They include marriage, divorce, changing job, major injury, moving house, starting and finishing education, redundancy, entering relationship. How these effect different people is of course a subject for other research, but for my purposes, I see them as i mportant trigger events, and the research shows they can have some considerable effect both in the material acquisition of ICTs. Minor events include minor illness, holidays, buying large items, promotion, making new friends, new activities.Life eventsSignificant events in life projects often changing points between one project and a new one.Annual eventsRegular practical and symbolic events that are marked by activities of the individual or shared in their group, organisation. Often mark cycles of life, and can be connected to particular life projects. Some may be linked to a subculture, others drawn from more universal culture (public holidays, festivals)Network eventsEvents that involve the network, these particularly relate to forging or changing relationships. bounds eventsThe termination event initially marks the change from one regime to another, but can also be an event that confirms the boundary when it is challenged. For example, boundaries in relationships, domains in l ife, the start and end of life projects, the making of rules. Often they are symbolic activities marking other changes (e.g. beating the bounds, initiation rites, and special anniversaries). I also include events that become important in defining boundaries, or for breaking them down e.g. getting a computer that enables work to be done at home, a decision not to get a computer to keep home and work separate, a family decision to limit TV viewing for children. Appropriation eventsChapter 3 Methodology and DesignRelated to technology events but particularly to do with the adoption of new innovations, and important events in the appropriation and integration of them. Technology eventsRemarkable events with the use and adoption of technology, maybe a number of small events that are linked together in the mind of the respondent. One of the problems of one-off interviews is to try and understand how people change their minds, and when. One model would be to assume that there are specific events or experiences during which people either gain information, or have to make decisions and analyse and take evaluate that information or knowledge according to their values, circumstances, goals, relationships and resources. However, under this model how large or explicit are these events. For some people there may be definite times when decisions or knowledge and attitude formation, affirmation or change occurred. For others there may be a slow accumulation of knowledge, through minor events, or for example, constant use of a technology.Any event may also only be a marker or a crisis point in some underlying situation, something that is the cummulation of chronic problems, or a trigger that tips the balance in favour of adoption. Equally there may be a decision against adoption. A vaguely neutral or negative position may be crystallised by a particular event. Sometimes it is an event from outside (e.g. the arrival of a bill), or an individual decision making that enough ise nough.3.5.5 BEAN and models of consumption and DomesticationThe analysis was helped by linking the BEAN framework to two other analytic frameworks, the domestication model and the consumption model of Holt (1995). By working with these I was able to derive grid indicating a range of issues to look for in relation to how people used and interpreted ICTs both in use and in the process of domestication. Again, these were used as a guide in the analysis of the data, rather than as boxes to be filled in from to illustrate every possible combination.Chapter 3 Methodology and DesignActivitiesExperiencemediated by work,domestic, leisure,social activitiesNetworkExperience incontext of otherpeople theirinfluence.EventsContext ortrigger foradoptionshapesexperiencePersonal HistoryAttitudes builtover time andexperience integratingIntegration of ICTsthrough everydayactivities. Meaningsthrough using/doingIntegration in asocial space(moral economy)Meanings throughsharing.?Appropriationat a time of change.Integrationwork time learningClassificationClassificationagainst otherspecialities ininstitutionsOthers to classifyoneself with andagainst in relationto ICTs quickenActivities that areshared around ICTuse, maintenance,purchase etcThe people withwhominnovations,adoption, use areshared.Developingrelationshipsaround ICTs found intocontact withnew people,obliged toreconsideridentityShared eventsPersonal capacityto appropriate and modify ICTsand innovationsdevelopedthroughexperience(scripts, creativity)Attitudes to othersv.v. ICTsdeveloped overtime andexperiencesExperience(Subjective)Table 3 The BEAN approach and. Holts consumption modelPast experiencesof using andadoptinginnovations andICTsChapter 3 Methodology and DesignActivitiesAppropriationObjectificationNetworkEventsPersonal HistoryAppropriationimposed fromoutside, or seen asfitting activities ofhousehold fromwork to media use.Activities enableappropriation(resources, money,knowledge)Object brought intothe home and placedre levant to activitiesintended for work,play, individual orgroup use.Discussion, debatewithin household,and with, networksoutside enrollingexpertise, andresourcesEvent for wholehousehold e.g.moving, or forindividual e.g. newjob, school. Orregular event, e.g.Christmas. MediaeventPast experiences ofICTs in the home,and the experiencesof individualsappropriating fromoutsideDebate over whereit should be placed,in what context,how it can bemoved. Who is incontrol Who isexpert set.Discussions of newacquisitionRoutines of sharing,Emerging rules ofuse, disputes overuse, sharing,discussion structured intoroutines, everydaylife. Changingrelationships ofcontrol, expertise.Tool to challenge orre-enforce.Bringing knowledge,attitudes fromoutside network in,developingknowledge that istranslated outagain. Attitudes ofthose outside.Changingboundaries. Otherscome into to useConflict overchangingboundariesThe installationevent, ceremony,the gift self-aggrandizing event,Previous experiencewith ICTs of differentsorts,Breaking points,rule making points,particular eventsdemanding use,decisions to restrict,change use,upgrade,Attitudes to othersv.v. ICTs developedover time andexperiences. Preexisting routines howthey fit newacquisition, preexisting hierarchiesEvents use of ICTfor/by people fromoutside. Particulardiscussions outsidehome, experiencesoutside that arebrought in, real orelectronic.Willingness to sharehome experience withoutside, pre-existingrelationships withoutside.IncorporationIntegration into theactivities in the home,routines of space andtime changes inactivities Changingexisting routines andactivities (e.g.displacement,replacement ofactivities)ConversionChanging boundaryof activities. Use ofICT at home thatchange outsideactivities (e.g. workroutines) bringactivities into thehome e.g.socialising in home,electronic or real.Reinforcement ofboundary.Table 4 The BEAN approach and the domestication model3.6 Preparative Work and Reflections on the Research Process In prep aring the research, and developing an understanding of the process I would be investigating in others, I reflected on my own experience and everyday life, using a number of the tools from the literature and those I was developing myself. As IChapter 3 Methodology and Designdeveloped the research from the original rather different conception, and noticed a number of issues that would subsequently become important. These tools included keeping a diary of my own social network and contacts, and a diary of my own adoption of the mobile telephone, in the context of the issues raised by the BEAN, Domestication and Consumption models, recording my own inherent reactions and thoughts and learning, the practical aspects of learning and using a mobile phone, particular events, and the reactions of other others over a period of two years (These are given in the Appendix). This gave considerable insights into a personal technology that created ambivalence and crossed over into all domains of l ife, and into the way I could engage with those I was interviewing, and the sort of issues I would have to investigate.Finally, in parallel to the formal research, I was continually watching the way I saw people using and talking about new ICTs, and asking for stories, which were usually forthcoming in response to finding out what I was investigating. These stories reinforced what I was finding in the interviews, and in many ways pushed the pleader of the research. One aspect was constant trade in ICTs between people, gifts, sharing etc. Second was the importance of individuals who were enthusiasts and earlier adopters in their social networks, who provided resources, help and encouragement for others. This was true for groups of experienced users, who needed someone to keep them updated on new technology, and for novices who needed a first step on the ladder. Third were the constant problems that were encountered, and the stress that went along with the benefits of use.A number of events also prompted and encouraged my research. One of these was a major trial in the US of an English au pair accused of murdering a child in her care. At the time of the judgement the judge chose to put the verdict on the Internet. He did this not out because the Justice subdivision had instigated it as a policy, but because his son had persuaded him it was an good thing to do. This was a very public reflexion of the cross-over of influence between home and work in the adoption of the Internet.Chapter 3 Methodology and Design1Interpretative or qualitative research, developed in the 20th century based on the ethnographic research of the Chicago school, especially George Herbert Mead. Herbert Blumer, who developed the ideas of Symbolic Interactionalism based on the work Mead suggests The task of scientific study is to lift the veils that cover the area of group life that one proposes to study (Blumer, 1969)p.39. Interpretative research stresses the importance of the individual a nd intersubjective interpretation in understanding social processes, but also in the actual practice of social science there is the double hermeneutic (Giddens 1976) of the researcher interacting and interpreting Mead (1934) in (Prus, 1996)) the social situation that is being studied. The ethnographic method calls for the researcher to put themselves in the shoes of the other person (Berger and Luckmann, 1966), to share the reality of the life-world of the other. Although a theoretical basis is important, the researcher should use inspection with a great deal of flexibility to investigate presumptions.The social situation should be approached from different angles and be imaginative, free, flexible, creative. Interpretative research stresses the importance of the individual and intersubjective interpretation in understanding social processes, but also in the actual practice of social science there is the double hermeneutic (Giddens 1976) of the researcher interacting and interpret ing (Mead (1934) in (Prus, 1996)) the social situation that is being studied. However, what ever the lengths a researcher may go to take the others stand point they are inevitably going to interpret the social situation according to a formal and informal logic that they bring to the research process. What a researcher should do therefore is to try and make explicit both to themselves, and to their readers is not only the theoretically imposed interpretative window or frame, but the emotional, personal and contingent influences on their interactions with the those whose lives that are studying and on the interpretative process. 2Desjeux et al. (Desjeux, Taponier et al., 1997) suggest four main dimension of investigation of the everyday to investigate the link between the social and the technical Delegation of responsibility, to machines, to other people in the social network, and to commercial providers RoutinesPlanning of activities Improvisation.3Shopping is an area where there is considerable promise for new technology for home shopping, information gathering etc. There are very different types of use of technology in different retail outlets and for different goods, and different goods lend to mail order etc. Mail order is also an established business used by may people, from books and CDs, to clothes, consumer electronics, white goods, almost anything. The mail order market serves different groups. Catalogues that sell a wide range of goods are generally providing a planned credit service for low income purchasers. Other products such as books and music are sold though clubs and mail order because overheads are lower, and they service a regular purchasing habit. They can also provide a greater choice, and operate on lower overheads than high street retailers.There are specialist mail order services for products that are not normally available except in specialist shops, and mail order companies can offer better prices based on lower overheads and economie s of scale from a country wide or international market. There are also more and more single range or brand name mail order services from high street retailers and others, for whom mail order is a form of direct marketing. They run services as a complement to high street operations. Mail order and use of direct marketing information resources has been a big area of development in multimedia around mass market e-commerce